Comparative Religious Study: Looking at Greek Orthodox Christianity and Understanding of Luther and Calvin On Scripture, Christology, the Holy Spirit and Church
- Alex Pak
Introduction
In this Comparative Religious Study, I would like to take a look into Greek Orthodox Christianity and Reformed tradition, based on Luther and Calvin teaching. Even though, Christianity began as one religion, throughout the time, it branched out into three main divisions: Greek Orthodox; Roman Catholic and Protestantism. And there are many more small, distinct and esoteric branches of Christianity as well.
Purpose of this article is to take a look at commonalities and differences in Greek Orthodox and Protestant’s belief and teaching on Scripture; Nature of Jesus Christ (Christology), the Holy Spirit, and the Church. Before moving on to the subject, I would like to give a definition of both Reformed theology and Greek Orthodox Church.
Reformed theology came out of the Reformation and in particular the theology of Calvin (1509-1564), although its roots go back to Augustine (345-430), it was formulated by the puritans, especially in the Westminster confession of faith (1646). This Confession is the enduring fruit of the solemn Assembly of some 100 leading Puritan divines, convened at Westminster Abbey in London from July 1, 1643 through to Feb., 1649. Other reformed confessions: Belgic (1580), Baptist (1689), 39 Articles of the Church of England - Anglican and Episcopal (1571, 1662, 1801). Examples of some reformed theologians are Thomas Manton (1620-1677), John Owen (1616-1683), Richard Baxter (1615-1691), Thomas Goodwin, Jonathan Edwards (1703-1759), George Whitefield (1714-1770) and later Charles Hodge (1797-1878), AA Hodge (1823-1886) Spurgeon (1834-1892), B. B. Warfield (1851-1921), John Gresham Machen (1881-1937). Louis Berkhof (1873-1957), William Hendrickson (1900-1982), Martyn Lloyd-Jones (1899-1981), Cornelius Van Til (1895-1987), R C Sproul, John Piper.
According to Reformed tradition teachings, there are five solas in the teaching:
1. Sola Scriptura: The Scripture Alone is the Standard
2. Soli Deo Gloria! For the Glory of God Alone
3. Solo Christo! By Christ's Work Alone is We Saved
4. Sola Gratia: Salvation by Grace Alone
5. Sola Fide: Justification by Faith Alone
Reformed theology holds to the five points of Calvinism, although not all Calvinists would be reformed. The five points of Calvinism (TULIP) are: - Total Depravity, Unconditional election, and Limited atonement, Irresistible Grace, Perseverance of the Saints. While these doctrines, though certainly not originated by John Calvin, were re-emphasized and taught anew by him at the time of the Reformation, it remained for the Synod of Dordrecht, 1618-19, which was convened to settle the Arminian controversy in the Reformed Churches of the Netherlands, to formulate these truths with great clarity and in painstaking detail. This official formulation was accomplished in a creed, which represented the consensus of all Reformed churches of that day, the Canons of Dort.
The Eastern Orthodox Church is a Christian body that views itself as the historical continuation of the original Christian community established by Jesus and the Twelve Apostles. It is aim to preserving the traditions of the early church that is unchanged, accepting the canonicity of the first seven ecumenical councils (the Council of Nicea 325, the Council of Constantinople 381, the Council of Ephesus 431, the Council of Chalcedon 451, the Council of Constantinople 553, and the Council of Constantinople of 680-81 and the Council of Nicea 787) held between the 4th and the 8th centuries, and maintaining the unbroken link between its clergy and the Apostles by means of Apostolic Succession. The Greek Orthodox can refer to any of several hierarchical churches within the larger group of mutually recognizing Eastern Orthodox churches. Any Eastern Orthodox Church that is ethnically Greek and uses a Greek liturgy may be considered "Greek Orthodox".
On the Apostolic tradition, the Orthodox Church considers Christ Jesus to be the head of the church, which is his body. The numerous bishops of the church are historically connected to the Apostles through the laying on of hands, also known as Apostolic Succession. All bishops are equal in authority, including the bishop of Rome (also known as Pope). In the structure of church administration, the Eastern Orthodox Church is organized into various autocephalous groups each headed by a council (synod) of bishops whose main duty is to make sure the traditions and practices of the Church remain inviolate. There have been 7 occasions (Between the 4th and 8th century) when a general or "Great" council of all bishops has been called. These ecumenical councils were democratic in nature.
On Nature of Scripture
Both traditions acknowledge that the Bible is the greatest book in human history. They also know that the Bible is translated in more than 1200 languages. In addition, every year, the Bible is sold as a bestseller. The following passages explain about the Bible: 2 Timothy 3:16 says, “All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness” (NIV). “For the word of God is living and active. Sharper than any double-edged sword, it penetrates even to dividing soul and spirit, joints and marrow; it judges the thoughts and attitudes of the heart” (Hebrews 4:12, NIV). “Blessed is the one who reads the words of this prophecy, and blessed are those who hear it and take to heart what is written in it, because the time is near”(Revelation 1:3, NIV).
Besides the common understanding of general character of the Bible, each tradition has more to explain about the Scripture according to each tradition. The Orthodox Church considers itself to be the original Church founded by Christ and His apostles. The faith taught by Jesus to the apostles, given life by the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, and passed down to future generations uncorrupted, is known as Holy Tradition. The primary witness to Holy Tradition is the Bible, texts written or approved by the apostles to record revealed truth and the early history of the Church. Because of the Bible's apostolic origin, it is regarded as central to the life of the Church.
Further, the teachings and the practices of the Orthodox Church are to be found in the Scriptures and Sacred Apostolic Tradition, which have been handed down to the Church of Christ in the Revelation of God. These sacred Sources are essentials not only for correct teaching and worship, but also especially as Sources of the promises and covenants of God fulfilled in the Person of Christ. The Father, out of love and compassion, sent Christ to save mankind to remain forever in the Ecclesia, which He founded. It is imperative for all. Christians to understand the content of these sacred Sources in order to strengthen their faith in God and to accept Jesus Christ as the only Redeemer by Whom and in Whom man's personal salvation is wrought.
In Reformed tradition, it is the inscribed word of God and the truth. It gives a direction to past, present and future (Hebrews 1: 1). It is also a part of God’s Special revelation. It believes that God has employed a variety of modes of revelation throughout the history of redemption. Thus the tradition of Scripture is best understood in terms of God’s redemptive work and His divine plan in His creation. The nature of God’s Word is that it is living, powerful, dynamic and redemptive.
According to both traditions, they believe that the Bible is divided into the New Testament and the Old Testament. The Old Testament was written before Jesus came into the world. The New Testament was written after Jesus came into the world. From Genesis, which is the first book of the Old Testament, to Revelation, which is the last book of the New Testament, it spanned more than 1600 years. There are forty Bible writers. Within these writers, there are kings, high-ranking officers, scholars, farmers and fishermen. What is so striking is that despite the fact that there are many differences in generations, places and cultures among Bible writers, they have one thing in common, and that is they all are witness for Jesus Christ. Both traditions believe that God wrote it about Jesus Christ’s birth, prophecy, suffering, ascension, second coming, rapture, and an establishment of God’s kingdom. God chose a person, filled him with the Holy Spirit to convey His will, and inscribed in the Book.
Greek Orthodox has extra books in their Old Testament tradition. They are Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Addition to Esther, Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, Epistle of Jeremiah, Song of Three Children, Story of Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, Prayer of Manasseh, 1,2,3, 4, Maccabees, Psalm 151.
Both traditions believe that God’s word and will is not only contained in the Bible, but God can be known through nature and one’s conscience. Human consciousness has room for God. So when people lived in a time when there was no Bible, people served God through their consciousness. (Rom. 2:14-15) The Old Testament, with few exceptions, was written in Hebrew. The New Testament is written in Greek. The Canonicity of the 66 books was decided at Cartage Council in 398. In the beginning, there were no chapters and verses in the Bible. But with many continuous labors, in 1560, the introduction of the Geneva Bible was the beginning of the Bible that we know today which contained the chapters and the verses in the Old and the New Testament.
On Nature of God the Father
The fundamental truth of the Orthodox Church is the faith revealed in God: the Trinity of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In the personal attributions of the Divine Persons of the Trinity the Father begot the Son and the Father precedes the Holy Spirit. The Son, the Second Person of the Trinity, sends the Holy Spirit to guide His Church (cf. John 15:26). The nature and attributes of the Persons of the Trinity are revealed through Jesus Christ. The truth can be reached only by faith, being above and beyond human comprehension.
Reformed teaching acknowledges God’s existence; non-believers deny God’s existence. According to Reformed teachings, God reveals Himself in four different ways:
- God’s existence can be seen by the order of the universe and beyond.
- God’s revelation is through people’s will and consciousness.
- God’s existence is acknowledged through an individual’s past and experience.
- God’s existence can be acknowledged through the Bible.
Both Greek Orthodox and Reformed tradition acknowledge God through Trinitarian view. And they prove God’s existence by a General and Special revelation.
On Nature of the Son: Jesus Christ
Jesus is a Historical Figure.
Another fundamental belief of the Orthodox Church is the faith in the Second Person of the Holy Trinity, Jesus Christ, Who became "incarnate by the Holy Ghost and of the Virgin Mary and became man" (Nicene Creed) for our salvation. The Virgin Mary, the Theotokos gave birth to Jesus, Who is the only begotten Son of God. In the Orthodox Church the Theotokos is highly honored as expressed in praises recorded in the Scriptures with qualities mirrored in the Magnificat (cf. Lk. 1:46 ff.). If we ask modern people, who is Jesus? They would reply that Jesus was a Jew, a son of carpenter, and Galilean, the founder of Christianity. These answers may not be wrong entirely, but they are about Jesus. Now let us meditate on Jesus’ divinity.
Both traditions believe the virgin birth of Jesus Christ, Who is the Son of God.
Greek Orthodox Christians believe that the Son, that is to say, Jesus Christ, is God. With a profound comprehension of soul, they repeat the words of the Creed, "I believe . . . . and in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the Only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all ages. Light of light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, one in essence with the Father, from Whom all things were made."
Reformed teaching notes that, Jesus came into the world through a virgin birth. And it follows first seven Ecumenical Councils teachings. Through the Son Jesus Christ, one can see God’s love and righteousness similarly. Jesus’ divinity taught that God’s love may be limitless, but His righteousness is severe. For example, if a person breaks the law in the world, that person is guilty. And there is no one who has not broken the law. You may be offended at being called “a sinner.” You might say that you have tried to live a blameless and moral life. But in God’s sight, you cannot say that “I did not do anything wrong” (1 John 1: 8). The Bible says that everyone has sinned before God. There may be a difference for sin, but everyone has sinned. The Bible says that because of sin, there is suffering and penalty. Then how can we deal with sin? Is there any solution to it? Let us take a close look at the cross, which is central in Christianity.
Both Greek Orthodox and Reformed tradition see that the way of the cross is very important in Christianity. God's love caused Him to send His Son Jesus Christ to save man. For the Christian the Incarnation of Christ is a mystery. God is love. At the same time, God is a God of righteousness. The wage of sin is death. “Sinners shall surely die.” This saying is God’s righteousness. However, people have sinned. They broke God’s commandments. No one can stand before God as a sinless person. The solution to the problem was God has sent His only begotten Son to the world to suffer on the cross and die for the sin and penalty of humankind. Thus, God has established His righteousness.
Both Greek Orthodox and Reformed teaching see that an essential in the life of Christ, which is indispensable for the Church faith, is the Crucifixion of Christ which is considered the end of His humiliation and emptiness on earth. Jesus, whether it is much or less, has redeemed all of our sins. To receive God’s salvation, one must believe Jesus’ work on the cross and confess their sins. When one stands before God’s judgment, the question is not which sin have you committed in the past, but God’s question is do you believe that Jesus died on the cross as punishment for your sins? If the answer is yes, “I believe.” Then you will be saved from all pending punishments of sins. This becomes a standard of judgment.
Within Christianity, there is a Christian philosophy, theology and dogma and many other academic disciplines, but they are not in itself Christianity, but rather it is about Christianity. The fundamental question is whether I believe Jesus as my eternal Savior, who died on the cross for my sins, or not. This will separate between eternal life and eternal damnation.
God has already forgiven all of the sins of the people; they will be punished severely not for their sins but for their unbelief and denial of Jesus’ work on the cross.
If one believes the way of cross, any sins will be forgiven, but if one does not believe in God’s forgiveness, any smallest sin will remain. Therefore, if anyone asks which sin is the gravest of all, the answer is unbelief.
On Nature of the Holy Spirit
The Orthodox Church believes "in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, the Giver of life"
(Nicene Creed). The Holy Spirit is the Third Person of the Holy Trinity, Who proceeds from the Father only (cf. John 15:26). The Church firmly opposed the opinion that the Holy Spirit was created by the Son, and pronounced the correct belief in the Nicene Creed at the Second Ecumenical Synod.
The Holy Spirit is the Spirit of God. Christianity is the believer who lives with the Holy Spirit. Christianity is a not only believer who adhere to the literal understanding of the dogma and know about the Bible and have common sense, but it is a living community that lives and grows with the Holy Spirit. Thus, whoever does not have the Spirit of God; one is not a Christian (Rom. 8: 9).
The Holy Spirit exists to protect the believers from evil and enables them to escape from sin and temptation. The Holy Spirit has intellect, emotion and will, which help the believers to have a relationship with Him. Once becoming a believer, no one can deny the help of the Holy Spirit. Every believer needs the help of the Holy Spirit. There are many spirits in the world. However, that does not mean that every spirit belongs to God. There exists the evil spirits. The Bible gives us ways to discern the spirit.
In addition, this is the meaning of full of the Holy Spirit: every moment one prays, and sings hymns and faithful in all matters. Whether it is in the work place or at home, the believers are always treating others as one would treat God. And the believers always mediate upon the Word of God and his will and try to live according to God’s standards. He always tries to live a godly life.
Remember the following verse: “How much more will your Father in heaven give the Holy Spirit to those who ask him; Do not get drunk on wine, which leads to debauchery. Instead, be filled with the Spirit” (Luke 11:13; Ephesians 5:18).
Differenced between Greek Orthodox and Reformed tradition on proceeding of the Holy Spirit is that the former does not ascribe to filioque, which means that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son, whereas Reformed tradition upholds the phrase filioque. This was one of the reasons for East and West’s schism in A. D. 1040.
On Nature of Church
Both Reformed and Greek Orthodox believes that Church is found by Jesus Christ, and the body of Christ is a church. Church is like a branch of God’s kingdom on earth. She teaches God’s will and regulations, the believers will learn from her, and they worship and meet God while receiving training about spirituality.
Greek Orthodox teaching on Church is follows: The Church of Jesus Christ is a unique entity of the Revealed Truths of the Christian religion. The Church or rather the faithful embodies the Christian faith, projects Christian hope and gives life to Christian love. The essentials of the Orthodox Church and its members can be divided into four main correlated parts:
1) Principles of belief and faith;
2) The worship of God, in whom lies belief and hope, for salvation;
3) The living of life so as to serve one's neighbor and especially the "least of them" as well as oneself, and
4) The enforcing of a system of order of discipline and administration for the members of this Church.
There are many communities in the world. Communities like nation, society, regional, alumni and fraternal and so forth. But the only community that God has allowed is church and a family.
Why does a Christian go to a church on Sunday? Both traditions say that, it is because Christ rose from the dead on a Sunday morning. Jesus died for our sins on the cross and after three days, which was a Sunday, he was resurrected from the dead. Ever since, Jesus’ disciples gathered in a room and began worship on a Sunday.
Even Jesus himself said that he was a lord of the Sabbath. It was on a Sunday that the Lord of the Sabbath, Jesus rose from the dead. And it was on s Sunday that the Holy Spirit descended upon. Early church believers gathered on Sunday’s to worship God. These events became a tradition that the Christian began to treat Sunday as a holy day. On Sunday, Christians did not sell nor buy and did not perform regular work except to worship God and perform good deeds and rest.
The purpose of meeting in a church is to worship God that is why the meeting is godly and holy. And there is only one church. Holistically speaking, a universal church is one. Ephesians 4: 5 say, “One Lord, one faith, one baptism” (NIV).
People often ask a question “Since there is one God why then are there so many churches? Different denominations have different ways to worship God. It is true that churches exist in many different shapes and forms. Within a same language there are, culture and area, there are many different churches, because they have different characters and sub-cultures. The common ultimate goal of worshiping God is the same, but there are many ways to manifest and means to worship God. That is why there are many different denominations.
Both tradition notes that the function of the church is to lead worship and teach the Bible to believers, and perform a Sacrament, which was instructed by Christ himself. Baptism is a sign of cleansing all past sins with the blood of Christ. Sacrament is a remembrance of Christ shedding His blood and His flesh for sinners on the cross. The taking of bread and drinking in a cup reminds us of Christ’s work on the cross. Bread symbolizes Christ’s body, and the wine symbolizes Christ’s blood. Sacrament is a mysterious ceremony, which believers can experience, that began 2000 years ago on the cross, and is still relevant today because God, who transcends time and space, allows it to continue.
In Greek Orthodox tradition, the most awesome ceremony in the Orthodox Church is the Mysterion (sacrament) of the Holy Eucharist. This ceremony was instituted by Jesus Christ the day before His Crucifixion, as He enriched His Church forever with the Divine Gifts, His own Body and Blood. This ceremony of the Holy Eucharist is both His sacrifice for the salvation of man and a sacred mysterion. The Holy Eucharist is the seal of the proclamation of the communion with God.
In Greek Orthodox, priest, or in Reformed tradition, a priest/pastor is a man of God who proclaims and represents God’s will and truth to the church. Until the Lord returns, a priest/ pastor teaches the believers and helps them to live a godly life in the world. Moreover, this is priest/ pastor’s vocation. That is why a they have a heavy responsibility of praying and studying the Bible.
In Reformed tradition, worship is more lively and relational. For them, hymns are prayers and confessions in music. When singing the hymn, one starts to pray and can talk directly to God. In Reformed tradition, during worship, there is a congregational prayer. It is in the order of worship, and it represents the whole congregation. Since the congregational prayer is a public prayer, one must carefully choose what to say to God and to the congregation. Rather than praying for a private matter, one must pray for a general good, such as praying for a nation, which the congregation is a part of, society, church and mission endeavors. Therefore, the whole congregation can say Amen to the contents of the public prayer.
Preaching of the Word during worship in Reformed tradition. Preaching is the most part of worship in Reformed tradition than anything else.
That is why it is very important to have a proper attitude while listening to the sermon. If one listens to the sermon as a lecture, it offends God. It is beneficial when one hears the sermon prayerfully and has a willing heart to obey the Word. Believers must learn to hear the Word of God. A sermon is a time of reflection to the believers, whom God has spoken. Even though a sermon is boring, one must try to understand the sermon, just like a miner who mines gold.
Since the church is a holy place, once seated, one must first pray to God. In addition, after worship, believers can greet and shake others hand. It is not fitting to greet or talk during the worship.
Church is not a place for worship only, but a place of fellowship for the believers as well. The center of church life is based on worship, service, mission and evangelism. A proper spirituality is maintained by these activities.
Three proper believers’ attitudes are helpful. First, Sense of Belonging: Believers are the children of God, whom Christ paid his precious blood. In a bigger picture, they belong to a universal church, but they must belong to a local church.
Second, in church, there are many functions, such as worship, service, mission and education. Instead of being a mere spectator or guest, one must participate in these services.
Third, Sense of Service: Serving both inside and outside the church must be based on the sense of service. The church of God can grow when there are many believers who participate and through reaching out, the church is expanded. Moreover, it is important to remember that God remembers and rewards the believer’s service (Matthew 10: 38-42).
Conclusion
This paper has looked into teachings Greek Orthodox and Reformed teachings on nature of Scripture, Trinity: the Father, the Son, the Holy Spirit, and the nature of Church. One thing that is striking is that Greek Orthodox upholds tradition as much as the Scripture. Whereas Reformed teaching focus on the Scripture and evangelistic tendency in their teaching, i.e. witnessing, evangelism and personal relationship with others. Greek Orthodox is more of keeper of tradition and Eucharistic oriented branch of Christianity.
Work Cited
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